thebase.works · Das Kapital Kap. 21 · semantic zoom
Z3
linear reader › fork map ›
K.21
Einfache Reproduktion
Chapter 20 distinguished national wage levels, real wages, and labour's relative price. Chapter 21 turns from movements within the wage relation to the continuous process that reproduces that relation itself.
Welches immer die gesellschaftliche Form des Produktionsprozesses, er muß kontinuierlich sein oder periodisch stets von neuem dieselben Stadien durchlaufen. Sowenig eine Gesellschaft aufhören kann zu konsumieren, kann sie aufhören zu produzieren. In einem stetigen Zusammenhang und dem beständigen Fluß seiner Erneuerung betrachtet, ist jeder gesellschaftliche Produktionsprozeß daher zugleich Reproduktionsprozeß.
Continuity, not repetition

Every society must keep producing as it keeps consuming. Seen as a continuous, periodically renewed whole, every social production process is also a reproduction process.

Die Bedingungen der Produktion sind zugleich die Bedingungen der Reproduktion. Keine Gesellschaft kann fortwährend produzieren, d.h. reproduzieren, ohne fortwährend einen Teil ihrer Produkte in Produktionsmittel oder Elemente der Neuproduktion rückzuverwandeln. Unter sonst gleichbleibenden Umständen kann sie ihren Reichtum nur auf derselben Stufenleiter reproduzieren oder erhalten, indem sie die, während des Jahres z.B., verbrauchten Produktionsmittel, d.h. Arbeitsmittel, Rohmateriale und Hilfsstoffe, in natura durch ein gleiches Quantum neuer Exemplare ersetzt, welches von der jährlichen Produktenmasse abgeschieden und von neuem dem Produktionsprozeß einverleibt wird. Ein bestimmtes Quantum des jährlichen Produkts gehört also der Produktion. Von Haus aus für die produktive Konsumtion bestimmt, existiert es großenteils in Naturalformen, die von selbst die individuelle Konsumtion ausschließen.
Replacing production's conditions

Production conditions are also reproduction conditions. A society must return part of its annual product to production, replacing consumed instruments, raw materials, and auxiliary materials in kind. This material renewal is not yet the definition of simple reproduction as physically identical quantities recurring; it is the condition under which production can continue.

Hat die Produktion kapitalistische Form, so die Reproduktion. Wie in der kapitalistischen Produktionsweise der Arbeitsprozeß nur als ein Mittel für den Verwertungsprozeß erscheint, so die Reproduktion nur als ein Mittel, den vorgeschoßnen Wert als Kapital zu reproduzieren, d.h. als sich verwertenden Wert. Die ökonomische Charaktermaske des Kapitalisten hängt nur dadurch an einem Menschen fest, daß sein Geld fortwährend als Kapital funktioniert. Hat z.B. die vorgeschoßne Geldsumme von 100 Pfd.St. sich dieses Jahr in Kapital verwandelt und einen Mehrwert von 20 Pfd.St. produziert, so muß sie das nächste Jahr usf. dieselbe Operation wiederholen. Als periodisches Inkrement des Kapitalwerts, oder periodische Frucht des prozessierenden Kapitals, erhält der Mehrwert die Form einer aus dem Kapital entspringenden Revenue.1
Capital reproduced as capital

Where production has capitalist form, reproduction has it too. The labour process appears as a means to valorization, and reproduction as a means to reproduce advanced value as self-valorizing capital. A capitalist's economic role adheres only because money repeatedly functions as capital; surplus-value then appears as periodic revenue flowing from capital. Attached German note 1 / Moore–Aveling note [1] cites Sismondi, Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, vol. I, pp. 81–82: wealth seems exposed to exhaustion when its owner consumes others' products, yet under the social order reproduces itself through others' labour and yields annual revenue.

Dient diese Revenue dem Kapitalisten nur als Konsumtionsfonds oder wird sie ebenso periodisch verzehrt wie gewonnen, so findet, unter sonst gleichbleibenden Umständen, einfache Reproduktion statt. Obgleich letztere nun bloße Wiederholung des Produktionsprozesses auf derselben Stufenleiter, drückt diese bloße Wiederholung oder Kontinuität dem Prozesse gewisse neue Charaktere auf oder löst vielmehr die Scheincharaktere seines nur vereinzelten Vorgangs auf.
Simple reproduction's social form

If the capitalist spends this revenue as it is gained, simple reproduction takes place, other circumstances remaining unchanged. It is repetition on the old scale, but continuity dissolves appearances that belong only to an isolated production process. It does not mean that the same physical stock simply recurs unchanged.

Der Produktionsprozeß wird eingeleitet mit dem Kauf der Arbeitskraft für eine bestimmte Zeit, und diese Einleitung erneuert sich beständig, sobald der Verkaufstermin der Arbeit fällig und damit eine bestimmte Produktionsperiode, Woche, Monat usw., abgelaufen ist. Gezahlt wird der Arbeiter aber erst, nachdem seine Arbeitskraft gewirkt und sowohl ihren eignen Wert als den Mehrwert in Waren realisiert hat. Er hat also wie den Mehrwert, den wir einstweilen nur als Konsumtionsfonds des Kapitalisten betrachten, so den Fonds seiner eignen Zahlung, das variable Kapital produziert, bevor es ihm in der Form des Arbeitslohnes zurückfließt, und er wird nur so lange beschäftigt, als er ihn beständig reproduziert. Daher die im sechzehnten Kapitel unter II. erwähnte Formel der Ökonomen, die das Salair als Anteil am Produkt selbst darstellt.2 Es ist ein Teil des vom Arbeiter selbst beständig reproduzierten Produkts, das ihm in der Form des Arbeitslohns beständig zurückfließt. Der Kapitalist zahlt ihm den Warenwert allerdings in Geld. Dies Geld ist aber nur die verwandelte Form des Arbeitsprodukts. Während der Arbeiter einen Teil der Produktionsmittel in Produkt verwandelt, rückverwandelt sich ein Teil seines früheren Produkts in Geld. Es ist seine Arbeit von voriger Woche oder vom letzten halben Jahre, womit seine Arbeit von heute oder vom nächsten halben Jahr gezahlt wird. Die Illusion, welche die Geldform erzeugt, verschwindet sofort, sobald statt des einzelnen Kapitalisten und des einzelnen Arbeiters Kapitalistenklasse und Arbeiterklasse betrachtet werden. Die Kapitalistenklasse gibt der Arbeiterklasse beständig in Geldform Anweisungen auf einen Teil des von der letzteren produzierten und von der erstren angeeigneten Produkts. Diese Anweisungen gibt der Arbeiter der Kapitalistenklasse ebenso beständig zurück und entzieht ihr damit den ihm selbst zufallenden Teil seines eignen Produkts. Die Warenform des Produkts und die Geldform der Ware verkleiden die Transaktion.
Wages return from production

The purchase of labour-power for a fixed time is repeatedly renewed. But workers are paid only after their labour-power has produced commodities containing both its own value and surplus-value. Before wages return, they have reproduced the fund from which they are paid: variable capital. Money does not alter that class-level circuit. A worker's earlier product is converted into money and pays later labour; the capitalist class issues money claims on a product produced by workers and appropriated by capitalists, and workers return those claims to obtain their own share. Commodity and money forms veil the transaction. Attached German note 2 / Moore–Aveling note [2] cites Ramsay, p. 142, and J. Mill, Éléments, Paris 1823, pp. 33–34: both describe wages and profits as portions of the finished product.

Das variable Kapital ist also nur eine besondre historische Erscheinungsform des Fonds von Lebensmitteln oder des Arbeitsfonds, den der Arbeiter zu seiner Selbsterhaltung und Reproduktion bedarf und den er in allen Systemen der gesellschaftlichen Produktion stets selbst produzieren und reproduzieren muß. Der Arbeitsfonds fließt ihm nur beständig in Form von Zahlungsmitteln seiner Arbeit zu, weil sein eignes Produkt sich beständig in der Form des Kapitals von ihm entfernt. Aber diese Erscheinungsform des Arbeitsfonds ändert nichts daran, daß dem Arbeiter seine eigne vergegenständlichte Arbeit vom Kapitalisten vorgeschossen wird.3 Nehmen wir einen Fronbauer. Er arbeitet mit seinen eignen Produktionsmitteln auf seinem eignen Acker z.B. 3 Tage in der Woche. Die drei andren Wochentage verrichtet er Fronarbeit auf dem herrschaftlichen Gut. Er reproduziert seinen eignen Arbeitsfonds beständig, und dieser erhält ihm gegenüber nie die Form von einem Dritten für seine Arbeit vorgeschoßner Zahlungsmittel. Im Ersatz erhält auch niemals seine unbezahlte Zwangsarbeit die Form freiwilliger und bezahlter Arbeit. Wenn morgen der Gutsherr den Acker, das Zugvieh, die Samen, kurz die Produktionsmittel des Fronbauern sich selbst aneignet, so hat dieser von nun an seine Arbeitskraft an den Fronherrn zu verkaufen. Unter sonst gleichbleibenden Umständen wird er nach wie vor 6 Tage in der Woche arbeiten, 3 Tage für sich selbst, 3 für den Exfronherrn, der jetzt in einen Lohnherrn verwandelt ist. Er wird nach wie vor die Produktionsmittel als Produktionsmittel vernutzen und ihren Wert auf das Produkt übertragen. Nach wie vor wird ein bestimmter Teil des Produkts in die Reproduktion eingehn. Wie aber die Fronarbeit die Form der Lohnarbeit, nimmt der vom Fronbauer nach wie vor produzierte und reproduzierte Arbeitsfonds die Form eines ihm vom Fronherrn vorgeschoßnen Kapitals an. Der bürgerliche Ökonom, dessen beschränktes Hirn die Erscheinungsform von dem, was darin erscheint, nicht trennen kann, schließt die Augen vor der Tatsache, daß selbst noch heutzutag der Arbeitsfonds nur ausnahmsweis auf dem Erdrund in der Form von Kapital auftritt.4
The labour fund's form

Variable capital is a particular historical appearance of the fund of means of life, or Arbeitsfonds, that workers need for maintenance and reproduction and must themselves reproduce in every social system. Marx uses Arbeitsfonds here in this ordinary, non-polemical sense; it is not Chapter 22's later target, the fixed wages-fund dogma. The Fronbauer comparison makes the form-change visible. A peasant works three days on their own land and three in compulsory corvée; after the lord appropriates the land, cattle, seed, and other means of production, the same six days become three for the worker and three for the former lord, now a wage-lord. The worker-produced labour fund now appears as capital advanced in wages. Attached German note 3 / Moore–Aveling note [3] cites Cazenove's 1853 note to Malthus: advancing wages adds nothing to labour's maintenance fund. German note 4 / Moore–Aveling note [4] cites Richard Jones, Textbook of Lectures on the Political Economy of Nations, Hertford 1852, p. 36: capitalists advance workers' subsistence in less than one quarter of the earth.

Allerdings verliert das variable Kapital nur den Sinn eines aus dem eignen Fonds des Kapitalisten vorgeschoßnen Wertes4a, sobald wir den kapitalistischen Produktionsprozeß im beständigen Fluß seiner Erneuerung betrachten. Aber er muß doch irgendwo und irgendwann anfangen. Von unsrem bisherigen Standpunkt ist es daher wahrscheinlich, daß der Kapitalist irgendeinmal durch irgendeine, von unbezahlter fremder Arbeit unabhängige, ursprüngliche Akkumulation Geldbesitzer ward und daher den Markt als Käufer von Arbeitskraft beschreiten konnte. Indes bewirkt die bloße Kontinuität des kapitalistischen Produktionsprozesses, oder die einfache Reproduktion, noch andre sonderbare Wechsel, die nicht nur den variablen Kapitalteil ergreifen, sondern das Gesamtkapital.
From advance to continuity

In the continuous flow of capitalist reproduction, variable capital no longer appears as value advanced out of the capitalist's own fund. Yet the process had to begin somewhere, so from this standpoint it can appear that the capitalist first became a money-owner independently of others' unpaid labour. Simple reproduction's continuity nonetheless transforms not only the variable part but total capital. Attached German note 4a / Moore–Aveling note [5] quotes Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book II, Chapter III, p. 355 in German and p. 311 in Moore–Aveling: the manufacturer receives wages in advance but these are restored, with profit, in the enhanced value of the product.

Beträgt der mit einem Kapital von 1.000 Pfd.St. periodisch, z.B. jährlich, erzeugte Mehrwert 200 Pfd.St. und wird dieser Mehrwert jährlich verzehrt, so ist es klar, daß nach fünfjähriger Wiederholung desselben Prozesses die Summe des verzehrten Mehrwerts = 5 × 200 ist oder gleich dem ursprünglich vorgeschoßnen Kapitalwert von 1.000 Pfd.St. Würde der jährliche Mehrwert nur teilweis verzehrt, z.B. nur zur Hälfte, so ergäbe sich dasselbe Resultat nach zehnjähriger Wiederholung des Produktionsprozesses, denn 10 × 100 = 1.000. Allgemein: Der vorgeschoßne Kapitalwert, dividiert durch den jährlich verzehrten Mehrwert, ergibt die Jahresanzahl oder die Anzahl von Reproduktionsperioden, nach deren Ablauf das ursprünglich vorgeschoßne Kapital vom Kapitalisten aufgezehrt und daher verschwunden ist. Die Vorstellung des Kapitalisten, daß er das Produkt der fremden unbezahlten Arbeit, den Mehrwert, verzehrt und den ursprünglichen Kapitalwert erhält, kann absolut nichts an der Tatsache ändern. Nach Abfluß einer gewissen Jahreszahl ist der von ihm geeignete Kapitalwert gleich der Summe des während derselben Jahreszahl ohne Äquivalent angeeigneten Mehrwerts und die von ihm verzehrte Wertsumme gleich dem ursprünglichen Kapitalwert. Allerdings behält er in der Hand ein Kapital, dessen Größe sich nicht verändert hat, wovon ein Teil, Gebäude, Maschinen usw., bereits vorhanden war, als er sein Geschäft in Gang brachte. Aber hier handelt es sich vom Wert des Kapitals und nicht von seinen materiellen Bestandteilen. Wenn jemand sein ganzes Besitztum aufzehrt dadurch, daß er Schulden aufnimmt, die dem Wert dieses Besitztums gleichkommen, so repräsentiert eben das ganze Besitztum nur die Gesamtsumme seiner Schulden. Und ebenso, wenn der Kapitalist das Äquivalent seines vorgeschoßnen Kapitals aufgezehrt hat, repräsentiert der Wert dieses Kapitals nur noch die Gesamtsumme des von ihm unentgeltlich angeeigneten Mehrwerts. Kein Wertatom seines alten Kapitals existiert fort.
Five years of surplus-value

If £1,000 capital yields £200 surplus-value annually and that surplus-value is consumed annually, then after five years 5 × £200 equals the £1,000 originally advanced. If only half is consumed yearly, the same result follows after ten years: 10 × £100 = £1,000. In general, divide the capital advanced by surplus-value consumed annually to obtain the number of reproduction periods after which the original capital has been consumed. The conclusion concerns value, not the material stock. Buildings and machinery may still stand, but once the equivalent of the original advance has been consumed, the present capital-value represents appropriated unpaid surplus-value. No value-atom of the old capital remains.

Ganz abgesehn von aller Akkumulation verwandelt also die bloße Kontinuität des Produktionsprozesses, oder die einfache Reproduktion, nach kürzerer oder längerer Periode jedes Kapital notwendig in akkumuliertes Kapital oder kapitalisierten Mehrwert. War es selbst bei seinem Eintritt in den Produktionsprozeß persönlich erarbeitetes Eigentum seines Anwenders, früher oder später wird es ohne äquivalent angeeigneter Wert oder Materiatur, ob in Geldform oder anders, unbezahlter fremder Arbeit.
No old value remains

Apart from all accumulation, simple reproduction necessarily turns every capital, sooner or later, into accumulated capital or capitalized surplus-value. Even capital originally earned by its owner becomes value appropriated without equivalent: materialized unpaid labour, whether in money or another form.

Wir sahen im vierten Kapitel: Um Geld in Kapital zu verwandeln, genügte nicht das Vorhandensein von Warenproduktion <4. Auflage: Wertproduktion> und Warenzirkulation. Es mußten erst, hier Besitzer von Wert oder Geld, dort Besitzer der wertschaffenden Substanz; hier Besitzer von Produktions- und Lebensmitteln, dort Besitzer von nichts als Arbeitskraft, einander als Käufer und Verkäufer gegenübertreten. Scheidung zwischen dem Arbeitsprodukt und der Arbeit selbst, zwischen den objektiven Arbeitsbedingungen und der subjektiven Arbeitskraft, war also die tatsächlich gegebne Grundlage, der Ausgangspunkt des kapitalistischen Produktionsprozesses.
Separation precedes the exchange

Commodity production and circulation alone do not make money capital. Owners of money and means of production must confront owners of nothing but labour-power as buyers and sellers. The separation of labour from its product, and of objective labour conditions from subjective labour-power, is capitalism's given starting condition; the issue is not an unfair exchange.

Was aber anfangs nur Ausgangspunkt war, wird vermittelst der bloßen Kontinuität des Prozesses, der einfachen Reproduktion, stets aufs neue produziert und verewigt als eignes Resultat der kapitalistischen Produktion. Einerseits verwandelt der Produktionsprozeß fortwährend den stofflichen Reichtum in Kapital, in Verwertungs- und Genußmittel für den Kapitalisten. Andrerseits kommt der Arbeiter beständig aus dem Prozeß heraus, wie er in ihn eintrat - persönliche Quelle des Reichtums, aber entblößt von allen Mitteln, diesen Reichtum für sich zu verwirklichen. Da vor seinem Eintritt in den Prozeß seine eigne Arbeit ihm selbst entfremdet, dem Kapitalisten angeeignet und dem Kapital einverleibt ist, vergegenständlicht sie sich während des Prozesses beständig in fremdem Produkt. Da der Produktionsprozeß zugleich der Konsumtionsprozeß der Arbeitskraft durch den Kapitalisten, verwandelt sich das Produkt des Arbeiters nicht nur fortwährend in Ware, sondern in Kapital, Wert, der die wertschöpfende Kraft aussaugt, Lebensmittel, die Personen kaufen, Produktionsmittel, die den Produzenten anwenden.5 Der Arbeiter selbst produziert daher beständig den objektiven Reichtum als Kapital, ihm fremde, ihn beherrschende und ausbeutende Macht, und der Kapitalist produziert ebenso beständig die Arbeitskraft als subjektive, von ihren eignen Vergegenständlichungs- und Verwirklichungsmitteln getrennte, abstrakte, in der bloßen Leiblichkeit des Arbeiters existierende Reichtumsquelle, kurz den Arbeiter als Lohnarbeiter.6 Diese beständige Reproduktion oder Verewigung des Arbeiters ist das sine qua non <die unerläßliche Bedingung> der kapitalistischen Produktion.
The starting point returns

What began as a condition is continuously produced again as capitalism's own result. Production turns material wealth into capital, means of valorization and enjoyment for the capitalist; workers leave the process as they entered it, sources of wealth but without means to realize it for themselves. Their product becomes capital, while capital reproduces labour-power as a wage-worker separated from its conditions. Attached German note 5 / Moore–Aveling note [6] cites James Mill, p. 242, on productive consumption: what is consumed productively is capital and becomes capital through consumption. German note 6 / Moore–Aveling note [7] cites the 1677 Reasons for a Limited Exportation of Wool, p. 19, and the 1777 Reasons for the Late Increase of the Poor Rates, p. 31: manufacture employs and perpetuates the poor, who are maintained in misery.

Die Konsumtion des Arbeiters ist doppelter Art. In der Produktion selbst konsumiert er durch seine Arbeit Produktionsmittel und verwandelt sie in Produkte von höherem Wert als dem des vorgeschoßnen Kapitals. Dies ist seine produktive Konsumtion. Sie ist gleichzeitig Konsumtion seiner Arbeitskraft durch den Kapitalisten, der sie gekauft hat. Andrerseits verwendet der Arbeiter das für den Kauf der Arbeitskraft gezahlte Geld in Lebensmittel: dies ist seine individuelle Konsumtion. Die produktive und die individuelle Konsumtion des Arbeiters sind also total verschieden. In der ersten handelt er als bewegende Kraft des Kapitals und gehört dem Kapitalisten; in der zweiten gehört er sich selbst und verrichtet Lebensfunktionen außerhalb des Produktionsprozesses. Das Resultat der einen ist das Leben des Kapitalisten, das der andern ist das Leben des Arbeiters selbst.
Two distinct consumptions

Workers consume in two different ways. In production, their labour consumes means of production and turns them into products of higher value: productive consumption, also the capitalist's consumption of purchased labour-power. With wages, workers buy means of subsistence: individual consumption. In the first they function as capital's moving force; in the second they carry out life-functions outside production.

Bei Betrachtung des "Arbeitstags" usw. zeigte sich gelegentlich, daß der Arbeiter oft gezwungen ist, seine individuelle Konsumtion zu einem bloßen Inzident des Produktionsprozesses zu machen. In diesem Fall setzt er sich Lebensmittel zu, um seine Arbeitskraft im Gang zu halten, wie der Dampfmaschine Kohle und Wasser, dem Rad Öl zugesetzt wird. Seine Konsumtionsmittel sind dann bloß Konsumtionsmittel eines Produktionsmittels, seine individuelle Konsumtion direkt produktive Konsumtion. Dies erscheint jedoch als ein dem kapitalistischen Produktionsprozeß unwesentlicher Mißbrauch.7
An exceptional direct case

Workers may be compelled to make individual consumption a direct incident of production, supplying themselves with food as coal and water supply a steam engine or oil a wheel. Marx treats this as an abuse not essential to capitalist production, not as the general social-scale claim. Attached German note 7 / Moore–Aveling note [8] says Rossi would not declaim so strongly against productive consumption if he had penetrated its secret.

Anders sieht die Sache aus, sobald wir nicht den einzelnen Kapitalisten und den einzelnen Arbeiter betrachten, sondern die Kapitalistenklasse und die Arbeiterklasse, nicht den vereinzelten Produktionsprozeß der Ware, sondern den kapitalistischen Produktionsprozeß in seinem Fluß und in seinem gesellschaftlichen Umfang. - Wenn der Kapitalist einen Teil seines Kapitals in Arbeitskraft umsetzt, verwertet er damit sein Gesamtkapital. Er schlägt zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe. Er profitiert nicht nur von dem, was er vom Arbeiter empfängt, sondern auch von dem, was er ihm gibt. Das im Austausch gegen Arbeitskraft veräußerte Kapital wird in Lebensmittel verwandelt, deren Konsumtion dazu dient, Muskel, Nerven, Knochen, Hirn vorhandner Arbeiter zu reproduzieren und neue Arbeiter zu zeugen. Innerhalb der Grenzen des absolut Notwendigen ist daher die individuelle Konsumtion der Arbeiterklasse Rückverwandlung der vom Kapital gegen Arbeitskraft veräußerten Lebensmittel in vom Kapital neu exploitierbare Arbeitskraft. Sie ist Produktion und Reproduktion des dem Kapitalisten unentbehrlichsten Produktionsmittels, des Arbeiters selbst. Die individuelle Konsumtion des Arbeiters bleibt also ein Moment der Produktion und Reproduktion des Kapitals, ob sie innerhalb oder außerhalb der Werkstatt, Fabrik usw., innerhalb oder außerhalb des Arbeitsprozesses vorgeht, ganz wie die Reinigung der Maschine, ob sie während des Arbeitsprozesses oder bestimmter Pausen desselben geschieht. Es tut nichts zur Sache, daß der Arbeiter seine individuelle Konsumtion sich selbst und nicht dem Kapitalisten zulieb vollzieht. So bleibt der Konsum des Lastviehs nicht minder ein notwendiges Moment des Produktionsprozesses, weil das Vieh selbst genießt, was es frißt. Die beständige Erhaltung und Reproduktion der Arbeiterklasse bleibt beständige Bedingung für die Reproduktion des Kapitals. Der Kapitalist kann ihre Erfüllung getrost dem Selbsterhaltungs- und Fortpflanzungstrieb der Arbeiter überlassen. Er sorgt nur dafür, ihre individuelle Konsumtion möglichst auf das Notwendige einzuschränken, und ist himmelweit entfernt von jener südamerikanischen Roheit, die den Arbeiter zwingt, substantiellere statt weniger substantieller Nahrungsmittel einzunehmen.8
The class-scale shift

The matter changes when Marx moves from one capitalist and one worker to the capitalist and working classes. Means of subsistence exchanged for labour-power reproduce workers' muscles, nerves, bones, and brains, and produce new workers. Within necessary limits, working-class consumption reconverts those means into labour-power exploitable by capital. This is a social reproduction claim: maintenance, reproduction, and market return are conditions of capital's reproduction. It does not say every personal act is immediately productive for a particular capitalist. The worker may consume for their own purposes, while capital restricts consumption to what is necessary. Attached German note 8 / Moore–Aveling note [9] cites Liebig, Part I, p. 194, note, on South American miners carrying 100–200 lb from 450 feet deep; Moore–Aveling prints 180–200 lb. Their masters force beans rather than bread because beans contain more bone-earth.

Daher betrachtet auch der Kapitalist und sein Ideolog, der politische Ökonom, nur den Teil der individuellen Konsumtion des Arbeiters als produktiv, der zur Verewigung der Arbeiterklasse erheischt ist, also in der Tat verzehrt werden muß, damit das Kapital die Arbeitskraft verzehre; was der Arbeiter außerdem zu seinem Vergnügen verzehren mag, ist unproduktive Konsumtion.9 Würde die Akkumulation des Kapitals eine Erhöhung des Arbeitslohns und daher Vermehrung der Konsumtionsmittel des Arbeiters verursachen ohne Konsum von mehr Arbeitskraft durch das Kapital, so wäre das zuschüssige Kapital unproduktiv konsumiert.10 In der Tat: die individuelle Konsumtion des Arbeiters ist für ihn selbst unproduktiv, denn sie reproduziert nur das bedürftige Individuum; sie ist produktiv für den Kapitalisten und den Staat, denn sie ist Produktion der den fremden Reichtum produzierenden Kraft.11
The economist's classification

The capitalist and political economist call productive only the part of workers' individual consumption required to perpetuate the working class, so that capital can consume labour-power. For workers themselves it reproduces only the needy individual; for capital and the state it reproduces the power producing others' wealth. Attached German note 9 / Moore–Aveling note [10] cites James Mill, p. 238 and following. German note 10 / Moore–Aveling note [11] cites Ricardo, p. 163: if higher wages allowed no additional labour-power to be employed, additional capital would be unproductively consumed. German note 11 / Moore–Aveling note [12] cites Malthus, Definitions, p. 30, on the worker as productive consumer for employer and state, but not strictly for themself.

Von gesellschaftlichem Standpunkt ist also die Arbeiterklasse, auch außerhalb des unmittelbaren Arbeitsprozesses, ebensosehr Zubehör des Kapitals als das tote Arbeitsinstrument. Selbst ihre individuelle Konsumtion ist innerhalb gewisser Grenzen nur ein Moment des Reproduktionsprozesses des Kapitals. Der Prozeß aber sorgt dafür, daß diese selbstbewußten Produktionsinstrumente nicht weglaufen, indem er ihr Produkt beständig von ihrem Pol zum Gegenpol des Kapitals entfernt. Die individuelle Konsumtion sorgt einerseits für ihre eigne Erhaltung und Reproduktion, andrerseits durch Vernichtung der Lebensmittel für ihr beständiges Wiedererscheinen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Der römische Sklave war durch Ketten, der Lohnarbeiter ist durch unsichtbare Fäden an seinen Eigentümer gebunden. Der Schein seiner Unabhängigkeit wird durch den beständigen Wechsel der individuellen Lohnherrn und die fictio juris des Kontrakts aufrechterhalten.
Invisible threads, changing masters

From the social standpoint, workers outside the immediate labour process remain an appendage of capital. Individual consumption maintains and reproduces them, then returns them to the labour market as means of subsistence are used up. Marx compares the Roman slave's chains with the wage-worker's invisible threads. The appearance of independence is maintained by changing individual wage-lords and the legal fiction of contract.

Früher machte das Kapital, wo es ihm nötig schien, sein Eigentumsrecht auf den freien Arbeiter durch Zwangsgesetz geltend. So war z.B. die Emigration der Maschinenarbeiter in England bis 1815 bei schwerer Strafe verboten.
Law against emigration

Marx records a historical coercive measure: where capital required it, it asserted a proprietary claim over the formally free worker through law. Until 1815, England prohibited the emigration of machine-making mechanics under severe penalties.

Die Reproduktion der Arbeiterklasse schließt zugleich die Überlieferung und Häufung des Geschicks von einer Generation zur andren ein.12 Wie sehr der Kapitalist das Dasein einer solchen geschickten Arbeiterklasse unter die ihm zugehörigen Produktionsbedingungen zählt, sie in der Tat als die reale Existenz seines variablen Kapitals betrachtet, zeigt sich, sobald eine Krise deren Verlust androht. Infolge des Amerikanischen Bürgerkriegs und der ihn begleitenden Baumwollnot wurde bekanntlich die Mehrzahl der Baumwollarbeiter in Lancashire usw. aufs Pflaster geworfen. Aus dem Schoß der Arbeiterklasse selbst, wie andrer Gesellschaftsschichten, erhob sich der Ruf nach Staatsunterstützung oder freiwilliger Nationalkollekte, um die Emigration der "Überflüssigen" in englische Kolonien oder die Vereinigten Staaten zu ermöglichen. Damals veröffentlichte die "Times" (24. März 1863) einen Brief von Edmund Potter, früher Präsident der Manchester Handelskammer. Sein Brief ward mit Recht im Unterhaus als "das Manifest der Fabrikanten" bezeichnet.13 Wir geben hier einige charakteristische Stellen, worin der Eigentumstitel des Kapitals auf die Arbeitskraft unverblümt ausgesprochen wird.
Skill reproduced across generations

Reproducing the working class includes the inheritance and accumulation of skill from one generation to the next. During the American Civil War and cotton famine, most Lancashire cotton workers were thrown out of work. Calls arose for state support or a voluntary national collection to enable the “superfluous” workers to emigrate to English colonies or the United States. The Times published Edmund Potter's 24 March 1863 letter; Potter was a former president of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce. The House of Commons rightly called it the manufacturers' manifesto. Marx introduces quotations in which capital's proprietary claim over labour-power is stated openly. Attached German note 12 / Moore–Aveling note [13] cites Hodgskin, Labour Defended, pp. 12–13 in German and p. 13 in Moore–Aveling, on skill as what is stored and prepared beforehand without capital for most workers. German note 13 / Moore–Aveling note [14] attributes “the manifesto of the manufacturers” to Ferrand's House of Commons motion on the cotton famine, 27 April 1863.

"Den Baumwollarbeitern mag gesagt werden, daß ihre Zufuhr zu groß ist ... sie müsse vielleicht um ein Dritteil reduziert werden, und dann würde eine gesunde Nachfrage für die übrigen zwei Dritteile eintreten ... Die öffentliche Meinung dringt auf Emigration ... Der Meister" (d.h. der Baumwollfabrikant) "kann nicht willig seine Arbeitszufuhr entfernt sehn; er mag denken, daß das ebenso ungerecht als unrichtig ist ... Wenn die Emigration aus öffentlichen Fonds unterstützt wird, hat er ein Recht, Gehör zu verlangen und vielleicht zu protestieren."
Potter's first claim

Potter's quoted voice says cotton-worker supply is too large and may need reduction by one third so that the remaining two thirds face healthy demand. Public opinion urges emigration, but “the master,” the cotton manufacturer, cannot willingly see his labour supply removed and claims a right to be heard and perhaps to protest if public funds support emigration.

Selbiger Potter setzt dann weiter auseinander, wie nützlich die Baumwollindustrie, wie "sie unzweifelhaft die Bevölkerung aus Irland und den englischen Agrikulturdistrikten wegdrainiert hat", wie ungeheuer ihr Umfang, wie sie im Jahr 1860 5 / 13 des ganzen englischen Exporthandels lieferte, wie sie nach wenigen Jahren sich wieder ausdehnen werde durch Erweiterung des Markts, besonders Indiens, und durch Erzwingung hinreichender "Baumwollzufuhr, zu 6 d. das Pfund". Er fährt dann fort:
Potter's trade account

Marx continues to report Potter's setup. Potter praises the cotton trade for drawing population from Ireland and English agricultural districts; says it supplied 5/13 of English exports in 1860; and predicts renewed expansion through markets, especially India, and a cotton supply at 6d. per lb. The next long quotation remains Potter's voice.

"Zeit - ein, zwei, drei Jahre vielleicht - wird die nötige Quantität produzieren ... Ich möchte dann die Frage stellen, ist diese Industrie wert, sie festzuhalten, ist es der Mühe wert, die Maschinerie" (nämlich die lebendigen Arbeitsmaschinen) "in Ordnung zu halten, und ist es nicht die größte Narrheit, daran zu denken, sie aufzugeben! Ich glaube das. Ich will zugeben, daß die Arbeiter nicht Eigentum sind (I allow that the workers are not a property), nicht das Eigentum Lancashires und der Meister; aber sie sind die Stärke beider; sie sind die geistige und geschulte Kraft, die in einer Generation nicht ersetzt werden kann; die andere Maschinerie dagegen, woran sie arbeiten (the mere machinery which they work), könnte zum großen Teil mit Vorteil ersetzt und verbessert werden in zwölf Monaten.14 Ermuntert oder erlaubt (!) die Emigration der Arbeitskraft, und was wird aus dem Kapitalisten? (Encourage or allow the working power to emigrate, and what of the capitalist?)"
Living machinery, proprietary claim

Potter says the necessary quantity may take one, two, or three years to produce. He asks whether the trade is worth retaining and whether “the machinery,” meaning living labour-machines, should be kept in order. He concedes that workers are not property, yet calls them Lancashire and the masters' strength: trained mental power not replaceable in a generation. The machinery they work can, he says, be replaced and improved in twelve months. His conclusion is that emigration of working power must not be encouraged or allowed. Attached German note 14 / Moore–Aveling note [15] recalls the masters' contrary ordinary claim when lowering wages: factory work is a low kind of skilled work, learnable after six months' education, while the master's machinery matters more. The note preserves the contrast between workers allegedly irreplaceable for 30 years and machinery replaceable within 12 months.

Dieser Herzensstoß erinnert an Hofmarschall Kalb.
Marx's short interruption

Marx interrupts Potter's emotional outcry with a satirical allusion: “This heart-throb recalls Court-Marshal Kalb.” It is Marx's voice, not Potter's.

" ... Nehmt den Rahm der Arbeiter weg, und das fixe Kapital wird in hohem Grade entwertet und das zirkulierende Kapital wird sich nicht dem Kampf mit schmaler Zufuhr einer niedrigeren Sorte von Arbeit aussetzen ... Man sagt uns, die Arbeiter selbst wünschen die Emigration. Es ist sehr natürlich, daß sie das tun ... Reduziert, komprimiert das Baumwollgeschäft durch Wegnahme seiner Arbeitskräfte (by taking away its working power), durch Verminderung ihrer Lohnverausgabung sage um 1/3 oder 5 Millionen, und was wird dann aus der nächsten Klasse über ihnen, den Kleinkrämern? Was aus den Grundrenten, was aus der Miete der cottages? ... was aus dem kleinen Pächter, dem besseren Hausbesitzer und dem Grundeigentümer? Und sagt nun, ob irgendein Plan für alle Klassen des Landes selbstmörderischer sein kann als dieser, die Nation zu schwächen durch den Export ihrer besten Fabrikarbeiter und die Entwertung eines Teils ihres produktivsten Kapitals und Reichtums?" "Ich rate zu einer Anleihe von 5 bis 6 Millionen, über 2 oder 3 Jahre verteilt, administriert durch Spezialkommissäre, beigeordnet den Armenverwaltungen in den Baumwolldistrikten, unter speziellen gesetzlichen Regulationen, mit gewisser Zwangsarbeit, um die moralische Valuta der Almosenempfänger aufrechtzuerhalten ... Kann es irgend etwas Schlimmeres geben für Grundeigentümer oder Meister (can anything be worse for landowners or masters), als ihre besten Arbeiter aufzugeben und die übrigbleibenden zu demoralisieren und zu verstimmen durch eine ausgedehnte entleerende Emigration und Entleerung von Wert und Kapital in einer ganzen Provinz?"
Potter's workhouse proposal

Potter continues in quotation. Removing the “cream” of workers, he says, devalues fixed capital; reducing the cotton trade by one third, or £5 million in wage expense, harms shopkeepers, rents, cottage rents, farmers, householders, and landowners. He recommends a £5–6 million loan over two or three years, administered by special commissioners attached to Poor Law Guardians in the cotton districts, with compulsory labour to preserve recipients' “moral” standing. This is Potter's proposal and his property-interest argument.

Potter, das auserwählte Organ der Baumwollfabrikanten, unterscheidet doppelte "Maschinerie", deren jede dem Kapitalisten gehört und wovon die eine in seiner Fabrik steht, die andre des Nachts und Sonntags auswärtig in cottages haust. Die eine ist tot, die andre lebendig. Die tote Maschinerie verschlechtert und entwertet sich nicht nur jeden Tag, sondern von ihrer existierenden Masse veraltet ein großer Teil durch den steten technischen Fortschritt beständig so sehr, daß sie vorteilhaft und in wenigen Monaten durch neuere Maschinerie ersetzbar. Die lebendige Maschinerie verbessert sich umgekehrt, je länger sie währt, je mehr sie das Geschick von Generationen in sich aufhäuft. Die "Times" antwortete dem Fabrikmagnaten u.a.:
A distinct Times voice

Marx attributes to Potter, the manufacturers' chosen organ, a distinction between two kinds of machinery owned by the capitalist: dead machinery in the factory and living machinery lodged in cottages at night and on Sundays. Dead machinery depreciates and is rapidly superseded; living machinery improves as generations' skill accumulates. Marx then introduces the Times's answer as a distinct voice.

"Herr E. Potter ist so impressioniert von der außerordentlichen und absoluten Wichtigkeit der Baumwollmeister, daß er, um diese Klasse zu erhalten und ihr Metier zu verewigen, eine halbe Million der Arbeiterklasse wider ihren Willen in ein großes moralisches Workhouse einsperren will. Ist diese Industrie wert, sie festzuhalten? fragt
The Times begins its satire

The Times says E. Potter is so impressed by the exceptional importance of the cotton masters that, to preserve their class and trade, he would confine half a million working-class people against their will in one great moral workhouse. The quotation continues in the next German paragraph.

Herr Potter. Sicher, durch alle ehrbaren Mittel, antworten wir. Ist es der Mühe wert, die Maschinerie in Ordnung zu halten? fragt wieder Herr Potter. Hier stutzen wir. Unter der Maschinerie versteht Herr Potter die menschliche Maschinerie, denn er beteuert, daß er sie nicht als absolutes Eigentum zu behandeln vorhat. Wir müssen gestehn, wir halten es nicht 'der Mühe wert' oder selbst für möglich, die menschliche Maschinerie in Ordnung zu halten, d.h. sie einzusperren und einzuölen, bis man ihrer bedarf. Menschliche Maschinerie hat die Eigenschaft, während der Untätigkeit zu verrosten, ihr mögt noch soviel dran ölen oder reiben. Zudem ist menschliche Maschinerie, wie der Augenschein uns eben lehrt, imstand, von eignen Stücken den Dampf anzulassen und zu platzen oder einen Veitstanz in unsren großen Städten zu tollen. Es mag, wie Herr Potter sagt, längere Zeit zur Reproduktion der Arbeiter erheischt sein, aber mit Maschinisten und Geld zur Hand werden wir stets betriebsame, harte, industrielle Männer finden, um daraus mehr Fabrikmeister zu fabrizieren, als wir je verbrauchen können ... Herr Potter plaudert von einer Wiederbelebung der Industrie in 1, 2, 3 Jahren und verlangt von uns, die Emigration der Arbeitskraft nicht zu ermuntern oder nicht zu erlauben! Er sagt, es sei natürlich, daß die Arbeiter zu emigrieren wünschen, aber er meint, daß die Nation diese halbe Million Arbeiter mit den 700.000, die an ihnen hängen, ihrem Verlangen zum Trotz in die Baumwolldistrikte einsperren und, eine notwendige Konsequenz, ihr Mißvergnügen durch Gewalt niederschlagen und sie selbst durch Almosen fristen muß, alles das auf die Chance hin, daß die Baumwollmeister ihrer an einem beliebigen Tag wieder bedürfen mögen ... Die Zeit ist gekommen, wo die große öffentliche Meinung dieser Eilande etwas tun muß, um 'diese Arbeitskraft' vor denen zu retten, die sie behandeln wollen, wie sie Kohle, Eisen und Baumwolle behandeln (to save this 'working power' from those who would deal with it as they deal with iron, coal and cotton)."15
Human machinery, confinement

Continuing its satire, the Times answers Potter that the trade is worth retaining by honest means but hesitates over keeping “the machinery” in order. It reads Potter's machinery as human machinery: workers cannot be shut up and oiled until wanted; they may rust, get steam up, burst, or run amok. The Times says machinists and capital can always make more master manufacturers. It then infers the consequence of Potter's position: although workers naturally wish to emigrate, half a million workers and their 700,000 dependants would be held in the cotton districts, their discontent suppressed by force and their subsistence supplied by alms, on the chance masters need them again. Its closing appeal is to save “working power” from treatment like iron, coal, and cotton. Attached German note 15 dates the Times article to 24 March 1863. Moore–Aveling does not carry a separate attached note at this point; its next attached note is [16] on Marx's result in the following paragraph.

Der "Times"-Artikel war nur ein jeu d'esprit <geistreiches Gedankenspiel>. Die "große öffentliche Meinung" war in der Tat der Meinung des Herrn Potter, daß die Fabrikarbeiter Mobiliarzubehör der Fabriken. Ihre Emigration wurde verhindert.16 Man sperrte sie in das "moralische Workhouse" der Baumwolldistrikte, und sie bilden nach wie vor "die Stärke (the strength) der Baumwollmeister von Lancashire".
Satire meets actual policy

Marx says the Times article was only a jeu d'esprit. The supposedly great public opinion actually shared Potter's view that factory operatives were movable fittings of factories. Their emigration was prevented; they were shut in the cotton districts' “moral workhouse” and remained the Lancashire cotton masters' “strength.” Attached German note 16 is the parliamentary-emigration note reported with the result: no public money was voted for workers' emigration, while later millions were voted for landlords during cattle disease.

Der kapitalistische Produktionsprozeß reproduziert also durch seinen eignen Vorgang die Scheidung zwischen Arbeitskraft und Arbeitsbedingungen. Er reproduziert und verewigt damit die Exploitationsbedingungen des Arbeiters. Er zwingt beständig den Arbeiter zum Verkauf seiner Arbeitskraft, um zu leben, und befähigt beständig den Kapitalisten zu ihrem Kauf, um sich zu bereichern.17 Es ist nicht mehr der Zufall, welcher Kapitalist und Arbeiter als Käufer und Verkäufer einander auf dem Warenmarkt gegenüberstellt. Es ist die Zwickmühle des Prozesses selbst, die den einen stets als Verkäufer seiner Arbeitskraft auf den Warenmarkt zurückschleudert und sein eignes Produkt stets in das Kaufmittel des andren verwandelt. In der Tat gehört der Arbeiter dem Kapital, bevor er sich dem Kapitalisten verkauft. Seine ökonomische Hörigkeit18 ist zugleich vermittelt und zugleich versteckt durch die periodische Erneurung seines Selbstverkaufs, den Wechsel seiner individuellen Lohnherrn und die Oszillation im Marktpreise der Arbeit.19
The relation reproduces separation

Capitalist production reproduces the separation of labour-power from labour conditions and therefore perpetuates exploitation's conditions. It repeatedly compels workers to sell labour-power to live and enables capitalists to buy it to enrich themselves. The process, not chance, returns workers to market as sellers and changes their own product into another person's means of buying them. Before any sale to an individual capitalist, the worker belongs to capital. Ökonomische Hörigkeit means economic bondage, not mere dependence; periodic renewal of self-sale, changing individual wage-lords, and oscillations in labour's market price both mediate and conceal it. Attached German note 17 / Moore–Aveling note [17] cites Sismondi, p. 91: the worker demands subsistence to live, the chief labour to gain. German note 18 / Moore–Aveling note [18] records Durham “hind's houses,” cottage rent as part of wages, and the feudal “bondage” contract that can require a worker's daughter to supply their place; it cites Public Health, Report VII (1864), p. 188. German note 19 / Moore–Aveling note [19] recalls that even the formality of voluntary self-sale disappears in child labour.

Der kapitalistische Produktionsprozeß, im Zusammenhang betrachtet oder als Reproduktionsprozeß, produziert also nicht nur Ware, nicht nur Mehrwert, er produziert und reproduziert das Kapitalverhältnis selbst, auf der einen Seite den Kapitalisten, auf der andren den Lohnarbeiter.20
The capitalist relation reproduced

Taken as a connected continuous process, capitalist production reproduces not only commodities and surplus-value, but the capital relation itself: the capitalist on one side and the wage-worker on the other. Attached German note 20 cites Marx, “Wage-Labour and Capital,” Neue Rheinische Zeitung no. 266, 7 April 1849, from lectures given to the German Workers' Association in Brussels in 1847 and interrupted in print by the February Revolution. The local Moore–Aveling note [20] has no body marker; it remains reported as unattached rather than being assigned to this paragraph.

K.21
Simple Reproduction
Chapter 20 distinguished national wage levels, real wages, and labour's relative price. Chapter 21 turns from movements within the wage relation to the continuous process that reproduces that relation itself.
Whatever the form of the process of production in a society, it must be a continuous process, must continue to go periodically through the same phases. A society can no more cease to produce than it can cease to consume. When viewed, therefore, as a connected whole, and as flowing on with incessant renewal, every social process of production is, at the same time, a process of reproduction.
Continuity, not repetition

Every society must keep producing as it keeps consuming. Seen as a continuous, periodically renewed whole, every social production process is also a reproduction process.

The conditions of production are also those of reproduction. No society can go on producing, in other words, no society can reproduce, unless it constantly reconverts a part of its products into means of production, or elements of fresh products. All other circumstances remaining the same, the only mode by which it can reproduce its wealth, and maintain it at one level, is by replacing the means of production — i.e., the instruments of labour, the raw material, and the auxiliary substances consumed in the course of the year — by an equal quantity of the same kind of articles; these must be separated from the mass of the yearly products, and thrown afresh into the process of production. Hence, a definite portion of each year’s product belongs to the domain of production. Destined for productive consumption from the very first, this portion exists, for the most part, in the shape of articles totally unfitted for individual consumption.
Replacing production's conditions

Production conditions are also reproduction conditions. A society must return part of its annual product to production, replacing consumed instruments, raw materials, and auxiliary materials in kind. This material renewal is not yet the definition of simple reproduction as physically identical quantities recurring; it is the condition under which production can continue.

If production be capitalistic in form, so, too, will be reproduction. Just as in the former the labour process figures but as a means towards the self-expansion of capital, so in the latter it figures but as a means of reproducing as capital — i.e., as self-expanding value — the value advanced. It is only because his money constantly functions as capital that the economic guise of a capitalist attaches to a man. If, for instance, a sum of £100 has this year been converted into capital, and produced a surplus-value of £20, it must continue during next year, and subsequent years, to repeat the same operation. As a periodic increment of the capital advanced, or periodic fruit of capital in process, surplus-value acquires the form of a revenue flowing out of capital. 1
Capital reproduced as capital

Where production has capitalist form, reproduction has it too. The labour process appears as a means to valorization, and reproduction as a means to reproduce advanced value as self-valorizing capital. A capitalist's economic role adheres only because money repeatedly functions as capital; surplus-value then appears as periodic revenue flowing from capital. Attached German note 1 / Moore–Aveling note [1] cites Sismondi, Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, vol. I, pp. 81–82: wealth seems exposed to exhaustion when its owner consumes others' products, yet under the social order reproduces itself through others' labour and yields annual revenue.

If this revenue serve the capitalist only as a fund to provide for his consumption, and be spent as periodically as it is gained, then, caeteris paribus, simple reproduction will take place. And although this reproduction is a mere repetition of the process of production on the old scale, yet this mere repetition, or continuity, gives a new character to the process, or, rather, causes the disappearance of some apparent characteristics which it possessed as an isolated discontinuous process.
Simple reproduction's social form

If the capitalist spends this revenue as it is gained, simple reproduction takes place, other circumstances remaining unchanged. It is repetition on the old scale, but continuity dissolves appearances that belong only to an isolated production process. It does not mean that the same physical stock simply recurs unchanged.

The purchase of labour-power for a fixed period is the prelude to the process of production; and this prelude is constantly repeated when the stipulated term comes to an end, when a definite period of production, such as a week or a month, has elapsed. But the labourer is not paid until after he has expended his labour-power, and realised in commodities not only its value, but surplus-value. He has, therefore, produced not only surplus-value, which we for the present regard as a fund to meet the private consumption of the capitalist, but he has also produced, before it flows back to him in the shape of wages, the fund out of which he himself is paid, the variable capital; and his employment lasts only so long as he continues to reproduce this fund. Hence, that formula of the economists, referred to in Chapter XVIII, which represents wages as a share in the product itself. 2 What flows back to the labourer in the shape of wages is a portion of the product that is continuously reproduced by him. The capitalist, it is true, pays him in money, but this money is merely the transmuted form of the product of his labour. While he is converting a portion of the means of production into products, a portion of his former product is being turned into money. It is his labour of last week, or of last year, that pays for his labour-power this week or this year. The illusion begotten by the intervention of money vanishes immediately, if, instead of taking a single capitalist and a single labourer, we take the class of capitalists and the class of labourers as a whole. The capitalist class is constantly giving to the labouring class order-notes, in the form of money, on a portion of the commodities produced by the latter and appropriated by the former. The labourers give these order-notes back just as constantly to the capitalist class, and in this way get their share of their own product. The transaction is veiled by the commodity form of the product and the money form of the commodity.
Wages return from production

The purchase of labour-power for a fixed time is repeatedly renewed. But workers are paid only after their labour-power has produced commodities containing both its own value and surplus-value. Before wages return, they have reproduced the fund from which they are paid: variable capital. Money does not alter that class-level circuit. A worker's earlier product is converted into money and pays later labour; the capitalist class issues money claims on a product produced by workers and appropriated by capitalists, and workers return those claims to obtain their own share. Commodity and money forms veil the transaction. Attached German note 2 / Moore–Aveling note [2] cites Ramsay, p. 142, and J. Mill, Éléments, Paris 1823, pp. 33–34: both describe wages and profits as portions of the finished product.

Variable capital is therefore only a particular historical form of appearance of the fund for providing the necessaries of life, or the labour-fund which the labourer requires for the maintenance of himself and family, and which, whatever be the system of social production, he must himself produce and reproduce. If the labour-fund constantly flows to him in the form of money that pays for his labour, it is because the product he has created moves constantly away from him in the form of capital. But all this does not alter the fact, that it is the labourer’s own labour, realised in a product, which is advanced to him by the capitalist. 3 Let us take a peasant liable to do compulsory service for his lord. He works on his own land, with his own means of production, for, say, 3 days a week. The 3 other days he does forced work on the lord’s domain. He constantly reproduces his own labour-fund, which never, in his case, takes the form of a money payment for his labour, advanced by another person. But in return, his unpaid forced labour for the lord, on its side, never acquires the character of voluntary paid labour. If one fine morning the lord appropriates to himself the land, the cattle, the seed, in a word, the, means of production of this peasant, the latter will thenceforth be obliged to sell his labour-power to the lord. He will, ceteris paribus, labour 6 days a week as before, 3 for himself, 3 for his lord, who thenceforth becomes a wages-paying capitalist. As before, he will use up the means of production as means of production, and transfer their value to the product. As before, a definite portion of the product will be devoted to reproduction. But from the moment that the forced labour is changed into wage labour, from that moment the labour-fund, which the peasant himself continues as before to produce and reproduce, takes the form of a capital advanced in the form of wages by the lord. The bourgeois economist whose narrow mind is unable to separate the form of appearance from the thing that appears, shuts his eyes to the fact, that it is but here and there on the face of the earth, that even nowadays the labour fund crops up in the form of capital. 4
The labour fund's form

Variable capital is a particular historical appearance of the fund of means of life, or Arbeitsfonds, that workers need for maintenance and reproduction and must themselves reproduce in every social system. Marx uses Arbeitsfonds here in this ordinary, non-polemical sense; it is not Chapter 22's later target, the fixed wages-fund dogma. The Fronbauer comparison makes the form-change visible. A peasant works three days on their own land and three in compulsory corvée; after the lord appropriates the land, cattle, seed, and other means of production, the same six days become three for the worker and three for the former lord, now a wage-lord. The worker-produced labour fund now appears as capital advanced in wages. Attached German note 3 / Moore–Aveling note [3] cites Cazenove's 1853 note to Malthus: advancing wages adds nothing to labour's maintenance fund. German note 4 / Moore–Aveling note [4] cites Richard Jones, Textbook of Lectures on the Political Economy of Nations, Hertford 1852, p. 36: capitalists advance workers' subsistence in less than one quarter of the earth.

Variable capital, it is true, only then loses its character of a value advanced out of the capitalist’s funds, 5 when we view the process of capitalist production in the flow of its constant renewal. But that process must have had a beginning of some kind. From our present standpoint it therefore seems likely that the capitalist, once upon a time, became possessed of money, by some accumulation that took place independently of the unpaid labour of others, and that this was, therefore, how he was enabled to frequent the market as a buyer of labour-power. However this may be, the mere continuity of the process, the simple reproduction, brings about some other wonderful changes, which affect not only the variable, but the total capital.
From advance to continuity

In the continuous flow of capitalist reproduction, variable capital no longer appears as value advanced out of the capitalist's own fund. Yet the process had to begin somewhere, so from this standpoint it can appear that the capitalist first became a money-owner independently of others' unpaid labour. Simple reproduction's continuity nonetheless transforms not only the variable part but total capital. Attached German note 4a / Moore–Aveling note [5] quotes Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book II, Chapter III, p. 355 in German and p. 311 in Moore–Aveling: the manufacturer receives wages in advance but these are restored, with profit, in the enhanced value of the product.

If a capital of £1,000 beget yearly a surplus-value of £200, and if this surplus-value be consumed every year, it is clear that at the end of 5 years the surplus-value consumed will amount to 5 × £200 or the £1,000 originally advanced. If only a part, say one half, were consumed, the same result would follow at the end of 10 years, since 10 × £100= £1,000. General Rule: The value of the capital advanced divided by the surplus-value annually consumed, gives the number of years, or reproduction periods, at the expiration of which the capital originally advanced has been consumed by the capitalist and has disappeared. The capitalist thinks, that he is consuming the produce of the unpaid labour of others, i.e., the surplus-value, and is keeping intact his original capital; but what he thinks cannot alter facts. After the lapse of a certain number of years, the capital value he then possesses is equal to the sum total of the surplus-value appropriated by him during those years, and the total value he has consumed is equal to that of his original capital. It is true, he has in hand a capital whose amount has not changed, and of which a part, viz., the buildings, machinery, &c., were already there when the work of his business began. But what we have to do with here, is not the material elements, but the value, of that capital. When a person gets through all his property, by taking upon himself debts equal to the value of that property, it is clear that his property represents nothing but the sum total of his debts. And so it is with the capitalist; when he has consumed the equivalent of his original capital, the value of his present capital represents nothing but the total amount of the surplus-value appropriated by him without payment. Not a single atom of the value of his old capital continues to exist.
Five years of surplus-value

If £1,000 capital yields £200 surplus-value annually and that surplus-value is consumed annually, then after five years 5 × £200 equals the £1,000 originally advanced. If only half is consumed yearly, the same result follows after ten years: 10 × £100 = £1,000. In general, divide the capital advanced by surplus-value consumed annually to obtain the number of reproduction periods after which the original capital has been consumed. The conclusion concerns value, not the material stock. Buildings and machinery may still stand, but once the equivalent of the original advance has been consumed, the present capital-value represents appropriated unpaid surplus-value. No value-atom of the old capital remains.

Apart then from all accumulation, the mere continuity of the process of production, in other words simple reproduction, sooner or later, and of necessity, converts every capital into accumulated capital, or capitalised surplus-value. Even if that capital was originally acquired by the personal labour of its employer, it sooner or later becomes value appropriated without an equivalent, the unpaid labour of others materialised either in money or in some other object. We saw in Chapt. IV.-VI. that in order to convert money into capital something more is required than the production and circulation of commodities. We saw that on the one side the possessor of value or money, on the other, the possessor of the value-creating substance; on the one side, the possessor of the means of production and subsistence, on the other, the possessor of nothing but labour-power, must confront one another as buyer and seller. The separation of labour from its product, of subjective labour-power from the objective conditions of labour, was therefore the real foundation in fact, and the starting-point of capitalist production.
No old value remains

Apart from all accumulation, simple reproduction necessarily turns every capital, sooner or later, into accumulated capital or capitalized surplus-value. Even capital originally earned by its owner becomes value appropriated without equivalent: materialized unpaid labour, whether in money or another form.

M–A merges
Separation precedes the exchange

Commodity production and circulation alone do not make money capital. Owners of money and means of production must confront owners of nothing but labour-power as buyers and sellers. The separation of labour from its product, and of objective labour conditions from subjective labour-power, is capitalism's given starting condition; the issue is not an unfair exchange.

But that which at first was but a starting-point, becomes, by the mere continuity of the process, by simple reproduction, the peculiar result, constantly renewed and perpetuated, of capitalist production. On the one hand, the process of production incessantly converts material wealth into capital, into means of creating more wealth and means of enjoyment for the capitalist. On the other hand, the labourer, on quitting the process, is what he was on entering it, a source of wealth, but devoid of all means of making that wealth his own. Since, before entering on the process, his own labour has already been alienated from himself by the sale of his labour-power, has been appropriated by the capitalist and incorporated with capital, it must, during the process, be realised in a product that does not belong to him. Since the process of production is also the process by which the capitalist consumes labour-power, the product of the labourer is incessantly converted, not only into commodities, but into capital, into value that sucks up the value-creating power, into means of subsistence that buy the person of the labourer, into means of production that command the producers. 6 The labourer therefore constantly produces material, objective wealth, but in the form of capital, of an alien power that dominates and exploits him; and the capitalist as constantly produces labour-power, but in the form of a subjective source of wealth, separated from the objects in and by which it can alone be realised; in short he produces the labourer, but as a wage labourer. 7 This incessant reproduction, this perpetuation of the labourer, is the sine quâ non of capitalist production.
The starting point returns

What began as a condition is continuously produced again as capitalism's own result. Production turns material wealth into capital, means of valorization and enjoyment for the capitalist; workers leave the process as they entered it, sources of wealth but without means to realize it for themselves. Their product becomes capital, while capital reproduces labour-power as a wage-worker separated from its conditions. Attached German note 5 / Moore–Aveling note [6] cites James Mill, p. 242, on productive consumption: what is consumed productively is capital and becomes capital through consumption. German note 6 / Moore–Aveling note [7] cites the 1677 Reasons for a Limited Exportation of Wool, p. 19, and the 1777 Reasons for the Late Increase of the Poor Rates, p. 31: manufacture employs and perpetuates the poor, who are maintained in misery.

The labourer consumes in a two-fold way. While producing he consumes by his labour the means of production, and converts them into products with a higher value than that of the capital advanced. This is his productive consumption. It is at the same time consumption of his labour-power by the capitalist who bought it. On the other hand, the labourer turns the money paid to him for his labour-power, into means of subsistence: this is his individual consumption. The labourer’s productive consumption, and his individual consumption, are therefore totally distinct. In the former, he acts as the motive power of capital, and belongs to the capitalist. In the latter, he belongs to himself, and performs his necessary vital functions outside the process of production. The result of the one is, that the capitalist lives; of the other, that the labourer lives.
Two distinct consumptions

Workers consume in two different ways. In production, their labour consumes means of production and turns them into products of higher value: productive consumption, also the capitalist's consumption of purchased labour-power. With wages, workers buy means of subsistence: individual consumption. In the first they function as capital's moving force; in the second they carry out life-functions outside production.

When treating of the working day, we saw that the labourer is often compelled to make his individual consumption a mere incident of production. In such a case, he supplies himself with necessaries in order to maintain his labour-power, just as coal and water are supplied to the steam-engine and oil to the wheel. His means of consumption, in that case, are the mere means of consumption required by a means of production; his individual consumption is directly productive consumption. This, however, appears to be an abuse not essentially appertaining to capitalist production. 8
An exceptional direct case

Workers may be compelled to make individual consumption a direct incident of production, supplying themselves with food as coal and water supply a steam engine or oil a wheel. Marx treats this as an abuse not essential to capitalist production, not as the general social-scale claim. Attached German note 7 / Moore–Aveling note [8] says Rossi would not declaim so strongly against productive consumption if he had penetrated its secret.

The matter takes quite another aspect, when we contemplate, not the single capitalist, and the single labourer, but the capitalist class and the labouring class, not an isolated process of production, but capitalist production in full swing, and on its actual social scale. By converting part of his capital into labour-power, the capitalist augments the value of his entire capital. He kills two birds with one stone. He profits, not only by what he receives from, but by what he gives to, the labourer. The capital given in exchange for labour-power is converted into necessaries, by the consumption of which the muscles, nerves, bones, and brains of existing labourers are reproduced, and new labourers are begotten. Within the limits of what is strictly necessary, the individual consumption of the working class is, therefore, the reconversion of the means of subsistence given by capital in exchange for labour-power, into fresh labour-power at the disposal of capital for exploitation. It is the production and reproduction of that means of production so indispensable to the capitalist: the labourer himself. The individual consumption of the labourer, whether it proceed within the workshop or outside it, whether it be part of the process of production or not, forms therefore a factor of the production and reproduction of capital; just as cleaning machinery does, whether it be done while the machinery is working or while it is standing. The fact that the labourer consumes his means of subsistence for his own purposes, and not to please the capitalist, has no bearing on the matter. The consumption of food by a beast of burden is none the less a necessary factor in the process of production, because the beast enjoys what it eats. The maintenance and reproduction of the working class is, and must ever be, a necessary condition to the reproduction of capital. But the capitalist may safely leave its fulfilment to the labourer’s instincts of self-preservation and of propagation. All the capitalist cares for, is to reduce the labourer’s individual consumption as far as possible to what is strictly necessary, and he is far away from imitating those brutal South Americans, who force their labourers to take the more substantial, rather than the less substantial, kind of food. 9
The class-scale shift

The matter changes when Marx moves from one capitalist and one worker to the capitalist and working classes. Means of subsistence exchanged for labour-power reproduce workers' muscles, nerves, bones, and brains, and produce new workers. Within necessary limits, working-class consumption reconverts those means into labour-power exploitable by capital. This is a social reproduction claim: maintenance, reproduction, and market return are conditions of capital's reproduction. It does not say every personal act is immediately productive for a particular capitalist. The worker may consume for their own purposes, while capital restricts consumption to what is necessary. Attached German note 8 / Moore–Aveling note [9] cites Liebig, Part I, p. 194, note, on South American miners carrying 100–200 lb from 450 feet deep; Moore–Aveling prints 180–200 lb. Their masters force beans rather than bread because beans contain more bone-earth.

Hence both the capitalist and his ideological representative, the political economist, consider that part alone of the labourer’s individual consumption to be productive, which is requisite for the perpetuation of the class, and which therefore must take place in order that the capitalist may have labour-power to consume; what the labourer consumes for his own pleasure beyond that part, is unproductive consumption. 10 If the accumulation of capital were to cause a rise of wages and an increase in the labourer’s consumption, unaccompanied by increase in the consumption of labour-power by capital, the additional capital would be consumed unproductively. 11 In reality, the individual consumption of the labourer is unproductive as regards himself, for it reproduces nothing but the needy individual; it is productive to the capitalist and to the State, since it is the production of the power that creates their wealth. 12
The economist's classification

The capitalist and political economist call productive only the part of workers' individual consumption required to perpetuate the working class, so that capital can consume labour-power. For workers themselves it reproduces only the needy individual; for capital and the state it reproduces the power producing others' wealth. Attached German note 9 / Moore–Aveling note [10] cites James Mill, p. 238 and following. German note 10 / Moore–Aveling note [11] cites Ricardo, p. 163: if higher wages allowed no additional labour-power to be employed, additional capital would be unproductively consumed. German note 11 / Moore–Aveling note [12] cites Malthus, Definitions, p. 30, on the worker as productive consumer for employer and state, but not strictly for themself.

From a social point of view, therefore, the working class, even when not directly engaged in the labour process, is just as much an appendage of capital as the ordinary instruments of labour. Even its individual consumption is, within certain limits, a mere factor in the process of production. That process, however, takes good care to prevent these self-conscious instruments from leaving it in the lurch, for it removes their product, as fast as it is made, from their pole to the opposite pole of capital. Individual consumption provides, on the one hand, the means for their maintenance and reproduction: on the other hand, it secures by the annihilation of the necessaries of life, the continued re-appearance of the workman in the labour-market. The Roman slave was held by fetters: the wage labourer is bound to his owner by invisible threads. The appearance of independence is kept up by means of a constant change of employers, and by the fictio juris of a contract.
Invisible threads, changing masters

From the social standpoint, workers outside the immediate labour process remain an appendage of capital. Individual consumption maintains and reproduces them, then returns them to the labour market as means of subsistence are used up. Marx compares the Roman slave's chains with the wage-worker's invisible threads. The appearance of independence is maintained by changing individual wage-lords and the legal fiction of contract.

In former times, capital resorted to legislation, whenever necessary, to enforce its proprietary rights over the free labourer. For instance, down to 1815, the emigration of mechanics employed in machine making was, in England, forbidden, under grievous pains and penalties.
Law against emigration

Marx records a historical coercive measure: where capital required it, it asserted a proprietary claim over the formally free worker through law. Until 1815, England prohibited the emigration of machine-making mechanics under severe penalties.

The reproduction of the working class carries with it the accumulation of skill, that is handed down from one generation to another. 13 To what extent the capitalist reckons the existence of such a skilled class among the factors of production that belong to him by right, and to what extent he actually regards it as the reality of his variable capital, is seen so soon as a crisis threatens him with its loss. In consequence of the civil war in the United States and of the accompanying cotton famine, the majority of the cotton operatives in Lancashire were, as is well known, thrown out of work. Both from the working class itself, and from other ranks of society, there arose a cry for State aid, or for voluntary national subscriptions, in order to enable the “superfluous” hands to emigrate to the colonies or to the United States. Thereupon, The Times published on the 24th March, 1863, a letter from Edmund Potter, a former president of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce. This letter was rightly called in the House of Commons, the manufacturers’ manifesto. 14 We cull here a few characteristic passages, in which the proprietary rights of capital over labour-power are unblushingly asserted.
Skill reproduced across generations

Reproducing the working class includes the inheritance and accumulation of skill from one generation to the next. During the American Civil War and cotton famine, most Lancashire cotton workers were thrown out of work. Calls arose for state support or a voluntary national collection to enable the “superfluous” workers to emigrate to English colonies or the United States. The Times published Edmund Potter's 24 March 1863 letter; Potter was a former president of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce. The House of Commons rightly called it the manufacturers' manifesto. Marx introduces quotations in which capital's proprietary claim over labour-power is stated openly. Attached German note 12 / Moore–Aveling note [13] cites Hodgskin, Labour Defended, pp. 12–13 in German and p. 13 in Moore–Aveling, on skill as what is stored and prepared beforehand without capital for most workers. German note 13 / Moore–Aveling note [14] attributes “the manifesto of the manufacturers” to Ferrand's House of Commons motion on the cotton famine, 27 April 1863.

“He” (the man out of work) “may be told the supply of cotton-workers is too large ... and ... must ... in fact be reduced by a third, perhaps, and that then there will be a healthy demand for the remaining two-thirds.... Public opinion... urges emigration.... The master cannot willingly see his labour supply being removed; he may think, and perhaps justly, that it is both wrong and unsound.... But if the public funds are to be devoted to assist emigration, he has a right to be heard, and perhaps to protest.”
Potter's first claim

Potter's quoted voice says cotton-worker supply is too large and may need reduction by one third so that the remaining two thirds face healthy demand. Public opinion urges emigration, but “the master,” the cotton manufacturer, cannot willingly see his labour supply removed and claims a right to be heard and perhaps to protest if public funds support emigration.

Mr. Potter then shows how useful the cotton trade is, how the “trade has undoubtedly drawn the surplus-population from Ireland and from the agricultural districts,” how immense is its extent, how in the year 1860 it yielded 5/13 ths of the total English exports, how, after a few years, it will again expand by the extension of the market, particularly of the Indian market, and by calling forth a plentiful supply of cotton at 6d. per lb. He then continues:
Potter's trade account

Marx continues to report Potter's setup. Potter praises the cotton trade for drawing population from Ireland and English agricultural districts; says it supplied 5/13 of English exports in 1860; and predicts renewed expansion through markets, especially India, and a cotton supply at 6d. per lb. The next long quotation remains Potter's voice.

“Some time ...,one, two, or three years, it may be, will produce the quantity.... The question I would put then is this — Is the trade worth retaining? Is it worth while to keep the machinery (he means the living labour machines) in order, and is it not the greatest folly to think of parting with that? I think it is. I allow that the workers are not a property, not the property of Lancashire and the masters; but they are the strength of both; they are the mental and trained power which cannot be. replaced for a generation; the mere machinery which they work might much of it be beneficially replaced, nay improved, in a twelvemonth 15 Encourage or allow (!) the working-power to emigrate, and what of the capitalist?... Take away the cream of the workers, and fixed capital will depreciate in a great degree, and the floating will not subject itself to a struggle with the short supply of inferior labour.... We are told the workers wish it” (emigration). “Very natural it is that they should do so.... Reduce, compress the cotton trade by taking away its working power and reducing their wages expenditure, say one-fifth, or five millions, and what then would happen to the class above, the small shopkeepers; and what of the rents, the cottage rents.... Trace out the effects upwards to the small farmer, the better householder, and ... the landowner, and say if there could be any suggestion more suicidal to all classes of the country than by enfeebling a nation by exporting the best of its manufacturing population, and destroying the value of some of its most productive capital and enrichment .... I advise a loan (of five or six millions sterling), ... extending it may be over two or three years, administered by special commissioners added to the Boards of Guardians in the cotton districts, under special legislative regulations, enforcing some occupation or labour, as a means of keeping up at least the moral standard of the recipients of the loan... can anything be worse for landowners or masters than parting with the best of the workers, and demoralising and disappointing the rest by an extended depletive emigration, a depletion of capital and value in an entire province?”
Living machinery, proprietary claim

Potter says the necessary quantity may take one, two, or three years to produce. He asks whether the trade is worth retaining and whether “the machinery,” meaning living labour-machines, should be kept in order. He concedes that workers are not property, yet calls them Lancashire and the masters' strength: trained mental power not replaceable in a generation. The machinery they work can, he says, be replaced and improved in twelve months. His conclusion is that emigration of working power must not be encouraged or allowed. Attached German note 14 / Moore–Aveling note [15] recalls the masters' contrary ordinary claim when lowering wages: factory work is a low kind of skilled work, learnable after six months' education, while the master's machinery matters more. The note preserves the contrast between workers allegedly irreplaceable for 30 years and machinery replaceable within 12 months.

Moore–Aveling omits Marx's Court-Marshal Kalb aside.
Marx's short interruption

Marx interrupts Potter's emotional outcry with a satirical allusion: “This heart-throb recalls Court-Marshal Kalb.” It is Marx's voice, not Potter's.

M–A merges
Potter's workhouse proposal

Potter continues in quotation. Removing the “cream” of workers, he says, devalues fixed capital; reducing the cotton trade by one third, or £5 million in wage expense, harms shopkeepers, rents, cottage rents, farmers, householders, and landowners. He recommends a £5–6 million loan over two or three years, administered by special commissioners attached to Poor Law Guardians in the cotton districts, with compulsory labour to preserve recipients' “moral” standing. This is Potter's proposal and his property-interest argument.

Potter, the chosen mouthpiece of the manufacturers, distinguishes two sorts of “machinery,” each of which belongs to the capitalist, and of which one stands in his factory, the other at night-time and on Sundays is housed outside the factory, in cottages. The one is inanimate, the other living. The inanimate machinery not only wears out and depreciates from day to day, but a great part of it becomes so quickly superannuated, by constant technical progress, that it can be replaced with advantage by new machinery after a few months. The living machinery, on the contrary gets better the longer it lasts, and in proportion as the skill, handed from one generation to another, accumulates. The Times answered the cotton lord as follows:
A distinct Times voice

Marx attributes to Potter, the manufacturers' chosen organ, a distinction between two kinds of machinery owned by the capitalist: dead machinery in the factory and living machinery lodged in cottages at night and on Sundays. Dead machinery depreciates and is rapidly superseded; living machinery improves as generations' skill accumulates. Marx then introduces the Times's answer as a distinct voice.

Mr. Edmund Potter is so impressed with the exceptional and supreme importance of the cotton masters that, in order to preserve this class and perpetuate their profession, he would keep half a million of the labouring class confined in a great moral workhouse against their will. ‘Is the trade worth retaining?’ asks Mr. Potter. ‘Certainly by all honest means it is,’ we answer. ‘Is it worth while keeping the machinery in order?’ again asks Mr. Potter. Here we hesitate. By the ‘machinery’ Mr. Potter means the human machinery, for he goes on to protest that he does not mean to use them as an absolute property. We must confess that we do not think it ‘worth while,’ or even possible, to keep the human machinery in order-that is to shut it up and keep it oiled till it is wanted. Human machinery will rust under inaction, oil and rub it as you may. Moreover, the human machinery will, as we have just seen, get the steam up of its own accord, and burst or run amuck in our great towns. It might, as Mr. Potter says, require some time to reproduce the workers, but, having machinists and capitalists at hand, we could always find thrifty, hard, industrious men wherewith to improvise more master manufacturers than we can ever want. Mr. Potter talks of the trade reviving ‘in one, two, or three years,’ and he asks us not ‘to encourage or allow (!) the working power to emigrate.’ 16 He says that it is very natural the workers should wish to emigrate; but he thinks that in spite of their desire, the nation ought to keep this half million of workers with their 700,000 dependents, shut up in the cotton districts; and as a necessary consequence, he must of course think that the nation ought to keep down their discontent by force, and sustain them by alms — and upon the chance that the cotton masters may some day want them.... The time is come when the great public opinion of these islands must operate to save this ‘working power’ from those who would deal with it as they would deal with iron, and coal, and cotton.”
The Times begins its satire

The Times says E. Potter is so impressed by the exceptional importance of the cotton masters that, to preserve their class and trade, he would confine half a million working-class people against their will in one great moral workhouse. The quotation continues in the next German paragraph.

M–A merges
Human machinery, confinement

Continuing its satire, the Times answers Potter that the trade is worth retaining by honest means but hesitates over keeping “the machinery” in order. It reads Potter's machinery as human machinery: workers cannot be shut up and oiled until wanted; they may rust, get steam up, burst, or run amok. The Times says machinists and capital can always make more master manufacturers. It then infers the consequence of Potter's position: although workers naturally wish to emigrate, half a million workers and their 700,000 dependants would be held in the cotton districts, their discontent suppressed by force and their subsistence supplied by alms, on the chance masters need them again. Its closing appeal is to save “working power” from treatment like iron, coal, and cotton. Attached German note 15 dates the Times article to 24 March 1863. Moore–Aveling does not carry a separate attached note at this point; its next attached note is [16] on Marx's result in the following paragraph.

The Times’ article was only a jeu d’esprit. The “great public opinion” was, in fact, of Mr. Potter’s opinion, that the factory operatives are part of the movable fittings of a factory. Their emigration was prevented. They were locked up in that “moral workhouse,” the cotton districts, and they form, as before, “the strength” of the cotton manufacturers of Lancashire.
Satire meets actual policy

Marx says the Times article was only a jeu d'esprit. The supposedly great public opinion actually shared Potter's view that factory operatives were movable fittings of factories. Their emigration was prevented; they were shut in the cotton districts' “moral workhouse” and remained the Lancashire cotton masters' “strength.” Attached German note 16 is the parliamentary-emigration note reported with the result: no public money was voted for workers' emigration, while later millions were voted for landlords during cattle disease.

Capitalist production, therefore, of itself reproduces the separation between labour-power and the means of labour. It thereby reproduces and perpetuates the condition for exploiting the labourer. It incessantly forces him to sell his labour-power in order to live, and enables the capitalist to purchase labour-power in order that he may enrich himself. 17 It is no longer a mere accident, that capitalist and labourer confront each other in the market as buyer and seller. It is the process itself that incessantly hurls back the labourer on to the market as a vendor of his labour-power, and that incessantly converts his own product into a means by which another man can purchase him. In reality, the labourer belongs to capital before he has sold himself to capital. His economic bondage 18 is both brought about and concealed by the periodic sale of himself, by his change of masters, and by the oscillations in the market-price of labour-power. 19
The relation reproduces separation

Capitalist production reproduces the separation of labour-power from labour conditions and therefore perpetuates exploitation's conditions. It repeatedly compels workers to sell labour-power to live and enables capitalists to buy it to enrich themselves. The process, not chance, returns workers to market as sellers and changes their own product into another person's means of buying them. Before any sale to an individual capitalist, the worker belongs to capital. Ökonomische Hörigkeit means economic bondage, not mere dependence; periodic renewal of self-sale, changing individual wage-lords, and oscillations in labour's market price both mediate and conceal it. Attached German note 17 / Moore–Aveling note [17] cites Sismondi, p. 91: the worker demands subsistence to live, the chief labour to gain. German note 18 / Moore–Aveling note [18] records Durham “hind's houses,” cottage rent as part of wages, and the feudal “bondage” contract that can require a worker's daughter to supply their place; it cites Public Health, Report VII (1864), p. 188. German note 19 / Moore–Aveling note [19] recalls that even the formality of voluntary self-sale disappears in child labour.

Capitalist production, therefore, under its aspect of a continuous connected process, of a process of reproduction, produces not only commodities, not only surplus-value, but it also produces and reproduces the capitalist relation; on the one side the capitalist, on the other the wage labourer.
The capitalist relation reproduced

Taken as a connected continuous process, capitalist production reproduces not only commodities and surplus-value, but the capital relation itself: the capitalist on one side and the wage-worker on the other. Attached German note 20 cites Marx, “Wage-Labour and Capital,” Neue Rheinische Zeitung no. 266, 7 April 1849, from lectures given to the German Workers' Association in Brussels in 1847 and interrupted in print by the February Revolution. The local Moore–Aveling note [20] has no body marker; it remains reported as unattached rather than being assigned to this paragraph.